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Driving through north-central Montana in late summer is an experience that stays with you forever. The vast “Golden Triangle” stretches before you—a seemingly endless ocean of amber wheat swaying gently in the breeze, creating rippling waves against the backdrop of distant, blue-tinged mountains. The landscape transforms into a painter’s palette of gold and bronze, punctuated only by the occasional grain elevator rising like a sentinel from the plains.

This golden expanse isn’t just a pretty sight; it’s the beating heart of Montana’s economy. Wheat cultivation runs deep in the state’s identity, shaping its communities, economy, and global reputation. For generations, Montana families have tended these fields, producing grain that has become the gold standard for quality worldwide.

Montana consistently ranks among the top wheat-producing states in America, often holding the third position nationally for spring wheat production. What makes this achievement even more remarkable is the state’s export prowess—nearly 80% of Montana’s wheat harvest leaves American shores, traveling across oceans to feed people on distant continents. From Japanese ramen to Italian pasta to artisanal European breads, Montana wheat provides the foundation for culinary traditions around the globe.

• Related article: Montana’s Economic Profile

The story of Montana wheat is one of exceptional quality born from challenging conditions, of innovation meeting tradition, and of local farmers feeding the world. As we explore this golden industry, we’ll discover why Montana’s wheat fields represent not just an agricultural success, but a source of state pride and identity.

The Geography of Quality: Montana’s Golden Triangle (The “Why”)

Montana’s wheat country is defined by a legendary region known as the “Golden Triangle” – a vast expanse of agricultural land stretching between Great Falls, Havre, and Shelby in north-central Montana. This region earned its name not just from the golden hue of ripening wheat fields that stretch to the horizon each summer, but from the remarkable quality of grain it produces.

What makes this triangular region so special? The answer lies in a perfect marriage of geography, climate, and farming techniques that create ideal conditions for premium wheat production.

The Golden Triangle benefits from a unique combination of environmental factors. Situated on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, the region experiences cold winters that help winter wheat varieties vernalize properly. The area receives just enough precipitation – typically 12-16 inches annually – to support dryland farming while maintaining the stress conditions that enhance wheat quality. Rich glacial soils deposited thousands of years ago provide the perfect growing medium, with excellent drainage and mineral content.

The Science of Dryland Farming

Unlike many agricultural regions across America that rely heavily on irrigation, Montana wheat farmers primarily practice dryland farming – a technique that depends entirely on natural rainfall rather than supplemental water sources. This approach requires deep understanding of moisture conservation, soil management, and timing.

Dryland farming techniques in Montana include:

• Deep tillage practices that allow moisture to penetrate and be stored in subsoil
• Careful timing of planting to maximize available moisture
• Extended fallow periods that allow fields to collect moisture between crop cycles
• No-till or minimum tillage approaches that preserve soil structure and moisture
• Crop rotation strategies that maximize soil health and moisture retention

These methods have been refined over generations, allowing Montana farmers to produce exceptional wheat in conditions that would challenge less experienced growers.

The Stress-Protein Connection

The challenging growing conditions of the Golden Triangle create what farmers and scientists call “beneficial stress” for wheat plants. When wheat grows in semi-arid conditions with limited moisture, the plant responds by concentrating more energy into seed production rather than vegetative growth. This stress response directly translates to higher protein content in the kernels.

While irrigated wheat regions might produce higher yields per acre, Montana’s dryland wheat develops protein levels typically ranging from 13-16% – significantly higher than the national average. This elevated protein content creates stronger gluten structures, which translates directly to superior baking quality, especially for products that require excellent strength and elasticity.

The Premium Quality Advantage

Montana’s high-protein wheat commands premium prices in global markets for good reason. Millers and bakers worldwide recognize that Montana wheat provides:

• Superior mixing tolerance in dough development
• Exceptional water absorption capabilities
• Better volume in finished baked goods
• Consistent performance in commercial baking applications
• Ideal texture and “chew” in pasta and noodle products

This quality advantage translates directly to economic benefit for Montana farmers. While they may harvest fewer bushels per acre than irrigated regions, the premium paid for high-protein wheat often compensates for the yield difference. In some years, Montana wheat can fetch $1-2 more per bushel than lower-protein varieties from other regions.

The Golden Triangle’s reputation for quality has been built over generations of farming expertise, with families passing down knowledge of how to coax the best performance from this challenging but rewarding landscape. This legacy continues today as Montana wheat remains the gold standard for premium baking performance worldwide.

Hard Red Winter Wheat: Montana’s Winter Warrior

Montana’s Hard Red Winter (HRW) wheat represents the resilience of both the land and its people. This remarkable grain variety has adapted to thrive in some of the harshest growing conditions in America, producing a premium product that’s sought after worldwide.

Planting Cycle and Winter Survival

Unlike its spring-planted counterparts, Hard Red Winter wheat begins its journey in the fall, typically September through early October. Farmers carefully time this planting window to allow the wheat to establish strong root systems before winter’s grip takes hold. Once planted, the wheat germinates and grows into small seedlings that appear to brave Montana’s brutal winter conditions.

What makes HRW truly remarkable is its dormancy mechanism. When temperatures plummet and snow blankets the landscape, the wheat enters a hibernation-like state. The plant redirects its energy to its root system, which continues developing beneath the frozen soil. This adaptation allows the wheat to survive temperatures that can plunge to -30°F or lower.

Come spring, when other farmers are just beginning to plant, HRW wheat awakens from dormancy with a significant head start. This early development helps it utilize spring moisture efficiently and mature before the intense summer heat arrives.

Primary Uses in Asian Noodles and Breads

Hard Red Winter wheat’s distinctive characteristics make it particularly valuable for specific food applications. With protein content typically ranging from 11-13%, slightly lower than spring wheat but still impressively high, HRW offers the perfect balance of strength and extensibility in its gluten structure.

This unique protein profile makes Montana’s HRW wheat especially prized in Asian markets, where it serves as the foundation for:

• Asian noodles: The protein strength provides the characteristic “bite” or chewiness in ramen, udon, and other Asian noodle varieties
• Hard rolls and flatbreads: The balanced gluten creates the ideal texture for dense, hearty breads
• Steamed products: The wheat’s properties allow for excellent steam retention in buns and dumplings
• All-purpose flour blends: Millers often incorporate HRW to achieve consistent performance in general baking applications

Japanese and Korean flour mills particularly value Montana’s HRW wheat, paying premium prices for its reliable quality and specific performance characteristics that align perfectly with traditional noodle-making techniques.

Distinctive Green Fields in December

One of Montana’s most striking agricultural sights occurs during early winter when patches of vibrant green stand in stark contrast to the otherwise dormant landscape. These emerald islands are young Hard Red Winter wheat fields, displaying their early growth before snow arrives.

Local farmers often refer to these as “Christmas fields” – a promise of next year’s harvest during the darkest days of winter. The sight of these green fields in December represents both hope and investment in the future, as farmers have already committed significant resources to a crop that won’t be harvested for another seven to eight months.

As winter progresses, these fields disappear beneath snow cover, but the wheat remains alive, waiting patiently for spring’s return. This visual cycle has become an integral part of Montana’s agricultural calendar, marking the seasons as reliably as the migration of birds or the changing of leaves.

Production Statistics

Montana consistently ranks among the top producers of Hard Red Winter wheat in the United States:

Year	Montana HRW Production (million bushels)	National Ranking	Average Yield (bushels/acre)
2020	81.6	5th	34.0
2021	63.2	6th	26.5
2022	79.5	5th	33.2
2023	85.1	4th	35.6

While Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas typically lead in total HRW production due to larger dedicated acreage, Montana’s wheat commands premium prices due to its higher protein content and superior quality characteristics.

The state typically dedicates approximately 2.3-2.5 million acres to Hard Red Winter wheat annually, representing about 45% of Montana’s total wheat acreage. Annual production fluctuates significantly based on weather conditions, ranging from 60-90 million bushels in recent years.

Despite these variations, the economic impact remains substantial, with HRW wheat contributing approximately $450-600 million annually to Montana’s agricultural economy and supporting thousands of jobs across the production and transportation sectors.

Hard Red Spring Wheat: Montana’s Premier Export

Hard Red Spring (HRS) wheat represents Montana’s agricultural crown jewel. Unlike its winter counterpart, this variety follows a different seasonal rhythm that defines the farming calendar across the state’s vast plains.

The spring planting cycle begins as soon as the soil thaws enough to work, typically in April or early May. Farmers monitor soil temperatures carefully, waiting for that perfect window when the ground has warmed to at least 40°F. This timing is crucial—plant too early, and a late frost could devastate the crop; too late, and the summer heat might arrive before the wheat has established itself.

What makes Montana’s HRS wheat particularly valuable is its exceptional protein content, typically ranging from 14-16%. This high protein level directly translates to stronger gluten development, making it the gold standard for artisan bread production. The wheat’s cellular structure creates the perfect balance of elasticity and extensibility in dough, allowing bakers to achieve those coveted open crumb structures with crisp crusts that define artisanal breads.

Pizza makers particularly prize Montana HRS wheat flour for creating the ideal Neapolitan-style crust—chewy yet tender with beautiful air pockets and the structural integrity to hold toppings without becoming soggy. The natural flavor profile of the grain itself adds a subtle nutty sweetness that enhances the overall taste experience.

Perhaps most notably, Montana’s HRS wheat serves as a “corrective blend” in the global flour market. Millers worldwide purchase it specifically to mix with lower-protein wheat varieties, effectively elevating the quality of their entire flour production. Even a 20% addition of Montana HRS wheat can transform ordinary flour into premium-grade product. This blending capability makes it an essential component in creating consistent commercial flour for major bakeries and food manufacturers.

The market value reflects this premium status. While commodity wheat prices fluctuate, Montana HRS wheat consistently commands a price premium of $1-2 per bushel over standard wheat varieties. This differential can mean the difference between profit and loss for many Montana farms. International buyers from Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and South Korea compete for Montana’s harvest each year, recognizing that the state’s unique growing conditions produce wheat qualities that simply cannot be replicated elsewhere.

Montana’s Durum: Pasta’s Golden Treasure

Montana ranks as the second-largest durum wheat producer in the United States, trailing only North Dakota in total production. This specialized wheat variety, with its amber-colored kernels and exceptional hardness, forms the backbone of the global pasta industry. Montana’s unique growing conditions—high altitude, cool nights, limited rainfall, and intense sunshine—create durum wheat with the perfect protein content and yellow pigmentation that pasta makers covet.

The journey from Montana’s fields to the world’s pasta begins in the northeastern and north-central regions of the state, where farmers have perfected durum cultivation across generations. After harvest, this premium grain travels primarily to North Dakota’s pasta manufacturing facilities or to export terminals in the Pacific Northwest, where it’s shipped to Italy and other pasta-producing nations.

What makes Montana durum exceptional is its high protein content (typically 13-15%), strong gluten structure, and vibrant yellow color from natural carotenoid pigments. These qualities translate directly to pasta that holds its shape during cooking, maintains the perfect “al dente” texture, and displays that appetizing golden hue consumers expect from quality pasta products.

When you enjoy a plate of premium spaghetti or fettuccine, there’s a good chance you’re experiencing the result of Montana’s perfect durum-growing environment—a direct connection between the state’s golden fields and dining tables worldwide.

From Conrad to Tokyo: The Export Journey of Montana Wheat (The Export Journey)

The journey of Montana wheat doesn’t end at harvest—it’s just beginning. From the expansive golden fields of the Treasure State, this premium grain embarks on a remarkable journey that spans thousands of miles, crossing continents and oceans before reaching dinner tables across the globe, particularly in Asia.

Montana’s wheat production far exceeds what the state or even the nation could consume. With nearly 80% of Montana’s wheat heading to export markets, the infrastructure supporting this movement is as vital as the farming practices that produce the grain.

The Local Elevator: First Stop on a Global Journey

When Montana farmers harvest their wheat, their first destination is typically the local grain elevator—those towering concrete or steel structures that punctuate the rural landscape. These aren’t your grandfather’s grain silos; modern elevators are sophisticated facilities equipped with:

• High-speed unloading pits that can empty a semi-truck in minutes
• Advanced testing equipment that analyzes protein content, moisture, and quality on the spot
• Massive storage capacity, with some facilities holding millions of bushels
• Computer systems that track every bushel from delivery to departure

Companies like Columbia Grain, United Grain Corporation, and CHS operate networks of these facilities across Montana’s wheat belt, creating the first critical link in the export chain.

The Railroad Connection: Montana to the Pacific

From these local elevators, Montana wheat travels predominantly by rail. The state’s rail system, originally built to support mining and agriculture in the late 19th century, remains the lifeline of wheat transportation today.

BNSF Railway’s northern route—following much of the historic Great Northern Railway’s path—carries the bulk of Montana’s grain west. These aren’t ordinary trains but dedicated “shuttle trains” consisting of 110-125 cars, each carrying approximately 3,500 bushels of wheat. A single shuttle train can transport over 400,000 bushels—the equivalent of about 1,200 acres of production.

The journey takes wheat through the Rocky Mountains via passes like Marias Pass, following routes that have transported Montana’s agricultural bounty for over a century. The trains thunder through small towns, a physical reminder of the connection between Montana’s fields and the global marketplace.

Pacific Northwest Ports: Gateway to Asia

After crossing the Continental Divide, Montana’s wheat arrives at Pacific Northwest ports—primarily Portland, Oregon, and Vancouver, Washington, where specialized grain terminals await.

These terminals are engineering marvels designed specifically for grain export:

• Massive storage facilities hold grain awaiting shipment
• High-speed conveyor systems load ships at rates exceeding 60,000 bushels per hour
• Quality control labs ensure the wheat meets exact specifications
• Dedicated docks accommodate Panamax and post-Panamax vessels

From these ports, massive bulk carriers—some holding over 2 million bushels of wheat—embark across the Pacific Ocean on a journey that typically takes 14-18 days to reach Asian ports in Japan, the Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan, and increasingly, China.

The Asian Connection: Why Montana Wheat Dominates

Montana wheat has achieved something remarkable: brand recognition in Asian markets. But why do Asian buyers specifically seek out Montana wheat, often paying premium prices for it?

The answer lies in the perfect marriage between Montana’s growing conditions and Asian food preferences:

1. Protein Content Meets Noodle Needs: The high protein content (13-16%) of Montana’s Hard Red Spring wheat creates the ideal “chew” or texture for Japanese udon, ramen, and Chinese noodles. This specific mouth-feel—what the Japanese call “koshi”—is culturally important and highly valued.
2. Consistent Color and Appearance: Montana wheat produces flour with the bright, clean appearance prized in Asian markets, where the visual aesthetics of food are particularly important.
3. Gluten Structure: The specific gluten quality in Montana wheat provides the perfect balance of strength and extensibility needed for noodle production.
4. Clean and Reliable: Montana’s relatively dry climate results in wheat with fewer disease issues and more consistent quality—critical factors for large-scale food manufacturers who need predictable ingredients.

Japanese flour mills, in particular, blend Montana’s premium wheat with other varieties to achieve exactly the right characteristics for their end products. Some Japanese noodle makers specifically advertise their use of American wheat, with Montana’s reputation for quality being a selling point to discerning consumers.

This export relationship, built over decades, represents not just a business transaction but a cultural exchange. Montana farmers increasingly understand the exact specifications their Asian customers demand, while Asian food manufacturers have built their products around the unique qualities of Montana wheat.

The next time you enjoy authentic ramen in Tokyo or udon in Osaka, remember that the journey of those noodles likely began in the golden fields of Montana, traveling halfway around the world to deliver a taste experience that connects two very different cultures through the humble wheat kernel.

Grit and Stewardship: The Challenges of Montana Wheat Farming (The Challenges)

Montana wheat farmers face challenges that would make most people reconsider their career choice. Yet the resilience of these agricultural stewards is as impressive as the golden fields they cultivate. Among the most significant threats to their livelihood are destructive pests, unpredictable weather patterns, and the constant need for sustainable practices.

The Wheat Stem Sawfly: A Tiny Terror

The wheat stem sawfly might be small—barely half an inch long—but it represents an existential threat to Montana’s wheat industry. This native insect has evolved from a minor nuisance to the state’s most devastating wheat pest, causing annual losses exceeding $25 million.

The sawfly’s life cycle is particularly destructive. Adult females lay eggs inside wheat stems in late spring. As larvae develop, they feed on the inner stem tissue, eventually cutting the stem near ground level just before harvest. The weakened stems snap and fall, creating a nightmare scenario of lodged wheat that’s difficult or impossible to harvest.

What makes this pest particularly challenging is its protected lifecycle—developing inside the wheat stem, it’s shielded from most insecticide applications.

Montana State University: Innovation Through Research

In the face of this persistent threat, Montana State University (MSU) has become a beacon of hope. The university’s wheat breeding program stands as one of the most successful examples of agricultural research addressing real-world problems.

MSU scientists pioneered the development of “solid-stem” wheat varieties—plants with stems filled with pith rather than hollow—which physically impede sawfly larvae development. Varieties like “Choteau” and “Judee” have given farmers effective weapons against this pest without requiring additional chemical applications.

The university’s work extends beyond just breeding resistant varieties. MSU researchers are at the forefront of studying the sawfly’s biology, developing integrated pest management strategies, and exploring potential biological controls. This comprehensive approach has helped keep Montana wheat competitive on the global stage despite significant pest pressure.

Weather Roulette: Farming at Nature’s Mercy

Montana farmers have a saying: “If you don’t like the weather, wait five minutes.” This quip belies the serious challenges posed by the state’s climate. Wheat farming in Montana is a high-stakes gamble with nature, where success or failure often hinges on rainfall timing and temperature patterns.

Drought represents the most persistent threat. In semi-arid regions where annual precipitation averages just 12-16 inches, a few weeks without rain during critical growth stages can devastate yields. The 2021 drought served as a stark reminder, with some regions reporting yield reductions of 50-75% compared to normal years.

Conversely, excessive moisture brings its own problems. Late spring snowstorms can flatten emerging wheat, while ill-timed rain during harvest can cause sprouting in the head—rendering the crop unsuitable for premium markets.

Extreme temperature fluctuations add another layer of complexity. Spring frosts can damage emerging plants, while summer heat waves during grain fill can significantly reduce kernel weight and quality.

Despite these challenges, Montana farmers have developed remarkable adaptability. Techniques like soil moisture conservation, careful variety selection based on maturity timing, and strategic planting dates help mitigate some weather risks—though Mother Nature always has the final say.

Sustainable Practices: Preserving the Land for Future Generations

The legacy of the 1930s Dust Bowl looms large in the collective memory of Great Plains agriculture. Montana wheat farmers have embraced this historical lesson through widespread adoption of conservation practices that protect their most valuable resource—the soil itself.

No-till and minimum-till farming have revolutionized wheat production across the state. By minimizing soil disturbance, these practices maintain organic matter, reduce erosion, and significantly improve moisture retention—a critical advantage in drought-prone regions. Studies show that well-managed no-till systems can store an additional 1-2 inches of soil moisture compared to conventional tillage—often the difference between crop success and failure.

Cover crops, crop rotation, and precision agriculture technologies further enhance sustainability. Many Montana wheat operations now utilize GPS-guided equipment and variable-rate technology to apply inputs precisely where needed, reducing waste and environmental impact while optimizing yields.

These stewardship practices don’t just preserve the land—they make economic sense. By building soil health and resilience, Montana wheat farmers are better positioned to weather both market and climate volatility, ensuring their operations remain viable for generations to come.

Grit and Stewardship: The Modern Challenges of Montana’s Wheat Industry

Montana wheat farmers face a unique set of challenges that require both traditional grit and modern stewardship practices. The harsh realities of dryland farming in a semi-arid region demand innovative approaches to sustainability and pest management.

The Wheat Stem Sawfly: A Persistent Adversary

The wheat stem sawfly represents one of the most destructive pests threatening Montana’s wheat crops. This native insect can devastate entire fields, with larvae boring into wheat stems and causing them to lodge (fall over) before harvest. The economic impact is substantial—losses can exceed $25 million annually across the state.

Montana State University has been at the forefront of developing resistant wheat varieties. Their innovative “solid stem” wheat varieties create physical barriers that prevent sawfly larvae from developing within the stem. This biological solution represents a perfect marriage between scientific innovation and practical farming, reducing the need for chemical interventions while protecting yields.

Weather Roulette: Farming in Uncertainty

Montana wheat farmers operate in a climate of extremes. The difference between a record harvest and crop failure often comes down to receiving—or missing—a single crucial rainfall. With annual precipitation in many wheat-growing regions averaging just 12-16 inches, farmers must constantly adapt to conditions that can change dramatically from one season to the next.

The spring of 2021 provided a stark example of this volatility, when much of Montana experienced severe to extreme drought conditions. Many farmers reported yield reductions of 50% or more compared to average years, underscoring the high-stakes nature of dryland wheat farming in the region.

No-Till Revolution: Keeping the Dust Bowl in the Past

Perhaps the most significant advancement in Montana wheat farming has been the widespread adoption of no-till farming practices. Unlike conventional tillage, which disturbs the soil through plowing, no-till farming leaves the soil intact and plant residue on the field surface. This approach represents a fundamental shift in how farmers interact with their land.

The benefits of no-till farming in Montana’s wheat country are multifaceted:

• Soil moisture conservation: By maintaining ground cover and reducing evaporation, no-till practices can preserve precious moisture in the soil profile—often the difference between crop success and failure in drought years.
• Erosion prevention: Wind erosion remains a constant threat in Montana’s open plains. No-till farming dramatically reduces this risk by keeping roots and residue intact, preventing the devastating soil loss that characterized the Dust Bowl era.
• Carbon sequestration: Montana’s wheat fields have become unexpected allies in the fight against climate change. No-till practices allow soil to sequester significantly more carbon than conventionally tilled fields—as much as 0.6 tons of carbon per acre annually in some cases.
• Operational efficiency: With fewer passes across fields, farmers save on fuel, equipment wear, and labor costs while reducing their carbon footprint.

Today, approximately 65% of Montana’s wheat acreage employs some form of conservation tillage, with true no-till practices gaining ground each year. This shift represents not just a farming technique but a philosophy that balances production needs with long-term land stewardship.

Precision Agriculture: Doing More With Less

Montana’s wheat farmers increasingly rely on precision agriculture technologies to maximize efficiency while minimizing environmental impact. GPS-guided equipment, variable rate technology for fertilizer application, and soil moisture monitoring systems allow farmers to apply inputs only where and when needed.

These technologies help farmers navigate the thin margins of dryland wheat production while reducing the risk of nutrient runoff and unnecessary chemical applications—a win for both farm profitability and environmental protection.

The Legacy of the Land: Montana’s Wheat Farming Families

Montana’s wheat industry stands on the shoulders of dedicated family farms that have worked the land for generations. These operations are far from small—the average Montana wheat farm spans over 5,000 acres, requiring significant investment in equipment, technology, and knowledge passed down through generations.

The family farm remains the backbone of Montana’s wheat production, with approximately 80% of operations family-owned and operated. Many of these farms trace their lineage back to homesteading days, when ancestors claimed land under the Homestead Act of the early 1900s. These families have weathered everything from the Dust Bowl to the farm crisis of the 1980s, developing resilience along with their crops.

What makes Montana’s wheat farms unique is the generational knowledge transfer that occurs. Young farmers don’t just inherit land—they inherit decades of accumulated wisdom about specific soil conditions, microclimate patterns, and techniques that work for their particular piece of Montana. This knowledge isn’t taught in agricultural schools; it’s passed down through seasons spent working alongside parents and grandparents.

“You can’t just read about farming this land in a book,” as many Montana wheat farmers will tell you. “Each field has its own personality, and knowing how to read the land comes from years of observation.”

The economic impact of these family farms extends far beyond their fence lines. In wheat-producing communities like Conrad, Havre, and Chester, the health of the wheat crop directly affects the entire town’s prosperity. Local equipment dealerships, grain elevators, hardware stores, and even schools depend on successful harvests.

During harvest season, these small towns come alive with activity—custom combining crews arrive, grain trucks line up at elevators, and local diners stay open late to feed hungry harvest workers. One good harvest can mean the difference between a thriving Main Street and boarded-up storefronts.

These wheat farming families also serve as stewards of massive tracts of Montana’s landscape. Their land management decisions affect wildlife habitat, water quality, and the visual character of Montana’s famous wide-open spaces. Increasingly, these farmers are adopting conservation practices that protect soil health while maintaining productivity—ensuring that the golden waves of wheat will continue to define Montana’s landscape for generations to come.

FAQs About Montana Wheat Industry

Sources:

• https://apps.msuextension.org/publications/pub.html?sku=EB0197
• https://www.montana.edu/academics/sustainable-crop-production/
• https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Montana/Publications/News_Releases/2023/MT-Wheat-Varieties-2023.pdf
• https://www.montana.edu/extension/broadwater/blog-article.html?id=21379
• https://agr.mt.gov/_docs/aginclass-docs/MDAPublications/Montana_Student_Wheat_Ag_Mag.pdf